Symptomatology:

The inhalation of a foreign body is characterized from a clinical point of view by a feeling of suffocation, dry cough and wheezing. Dyspnea usually appears abruptly and is  proportional to the size of the foreign body, although it sometimes depends on the edema of the respiratory mucosa, produced by irritation. The strange  body stuck in the larynx produces inspiratory dyspnea, tirage,  unable to speak and cry. Characteristic  is the position taken by the patient, who is often extremely suffering and carries his hands to the anterior region of the neck. Subsequently pallor, cyanosis, tachycardia, soporous and death manifests itself.
The strange  body  in the trachea does not cause pain but a  hissing and asthmaticbreathing, the patient can talk and the dyspnea  is  exhaling. If, on the other hand, the foreign body reaches the bronchial tree, it does not produce pain and the clinic becomes evident when it completely occludes the bronchial light. Sometimes the foreign body  is small or does not oclude the light until, after a certain period of time, it does not cause irritation and edema of the mucous membrane. If  it is  a seed or plant material,  it can completely the light when it hydrates and swells. When the light is occluded,  it  can produce pneumonia, bronchiectasia, emphysema and unilateral distal atelectasias.

Diagnosis:

Radiological study is important, to know the nature of the foreign body (radioo opaque or radiotransparent), its shape and exact position. For this purpose, a simple X-ray in AP and LL of the inhaled/exhaled chest and an X-ray of the soft parts of the neck are performed, bearing in mind that in 35% of cases the foreign body is not seen radiographically. In some cases, if the foreign body moves, it can create a valve effect and   signs of pulmonary emphysema appear in the X-ray (lowering of the homolateral hemidiaphragm, displacement of mediastinal structures to the healthy side, horizontalization of the  ribs. After a certain period of time, signs of pneumonia and bronchiectasia appear.

Treatment:

The treatment of choice is  the early extraction of the foreign body by endoscopic technique, under conditions of maximum safety and always ready to carry out an emergency tracheotomy. In case of partial (non-urgent) obstructions, the patient is invited to cough, corticosteroids are administered in high doses to avoid edema of the mucous membrane and a planned extraction is prepared. In complete obstructions and in children over one year of age,  Heimlich’s maneuver is carried out immediately as often as enough to get the foreign body out or until the patient   loses consciousness. At this point  Heimlich’s  maneuver is repeated five more times and cardiopulmonary resuscitation is then passed.  Heimlich’s maneuver is to put himself behind the patient by hugging him at the abdominal base and placing his hands clenched at the level of the stomach. Suddenly they tighten their arms by implementing a simultaneous upward movement of the hands in order to make the patient carry out a forced extraction.
If the complete obstruction occurs in a child under one year of age, it will be placed either in a prone position, with the lower head of the body, giving some vigorous blows between the shoulder blades, or in a   supine position,   always with the lower head of the body, performing compressions on the lower third of the sternum, or placing the child upside down, lifting it by the feet and beating vigorously between the shoulder blades.  The planned extraction of the foreign body is carried out by means of
a rigid bronchoscope (preferable to the flexible one unless difficult to access) and in a local or general anesthetic.

Prognosis:

If foreign bodies are not extracted, sooner or later they lead to death. In 2-4% of cases bronchial foreign bodies are expelled with cough, in 90%  of cases with bronchoscopy and on very rare occasions extraction by bronchoscopy after tracheotomy is necessary.

L'articolo Laryngo-tracheo-bronchial foreign bodies proviene da Otorino Matera.

Depending on the degree of hearing loss, the following are distinguished: mild deafness  (20-40 dB),  average deafness  (40-70 dB),   severe deafness (70-90 dB), deep deafness  (over 90 dB)  and total deafness (no auditory residue).

This classification, compared with the intensity of the word (65 dB average one meter away), makes   it possible to understand the difficulties that the hearing impaired encounters in listening to the voice of conversation and, consequently, what effect it has in linguistic acquisition if it arises before three years of life.

Considering the place of injury, transmissive deafness (by dysfunction of the outer and/or middle ear) is distinguished from perceptual or neurosensory deafness (by lesions of the inner ear and/or acoustic pathways): the latter are distinguished into cochlear,  retrococlear and  central.

Transmissive deafness is susceptible   to medical and/or surgical therapy often decisive on impairment, while perceptual deafness is   not yet treatable with this type of therapy and the intervention is prosthetic-rehabilitative in order to reduce and also solve the disability and communication handicap related  to deafness,but not impairment.

Finally, with regard to the moment of onset, it is customary to propose two  subclassifications,the first concerning the period of onset in relation to the acquisition of verbal language which, asyou know, is learned through the auditory way, and the second in relation to the chronological age and the event of insevery.

In relation to the acquisition of language are distinguished:   preverbal deafness (within  the 12th  month),  periverbal deafness  (1-3 years) and verbal deafness  (insurgent after three years) and this classification acquires an important practical value sincethe organization of a possible  rehabilitation activity will have to  be mainly auditory in verbal   deafness, while in hearing loss that arose before language acquisition it must also  be cognitive-linguistic.

As for the moment of onset, prenatal deafness is distinguished, from neonatal and postnatal; the former are also called congenital and the remaining acquired  deafness;  finally, it is remembered that the age  of hearing loss can   be stable, fluctuating or evolutionary.

With regard to the causes of  deafness, it is well known that transmissive hearing loss sees as more frequent   causes: earwax caps, catarrhal otitis, acute middle otitis and external and/or middle ear dysmorphism; perceptual deafness  is 60% genetic, sindromic and non-syndromeic, 20-30% toxic-infectious and in the remaining idiopathic cases.

With regard to epidemiological aspects, the data in the literature indicate that disabling deafness  (over 70 dB) has a prevalence of 1.6 per thousand, with an incidence for newborns of 1 per thousand. Less important hearing loss, on the other hand, is very frequent and affects a third of the paediatric population at  preschool age when the peak prevalence of Essudative Medium Otitis (OME) is higher.

Since hearing is the main channel for learningin general and language in particular, prevention, early diagnosis and timely treatment of hearing loss are key activities for the future cognitive growth of the small patient.

Prevention:

Also in the audiological field there are three types of prevention: primary, secondary and tertiary.

PRIMARY PREVENTION:

Thanks to primary prevention it is  possible to avoid the onset  of deafness and this is not possible today for all forms of hearing loss, but   only for those caused by neonatal jaundice due to Rh incompatibility, ototoxicity from drugs and some infectious diseases.

a) Neonatal jaundice deafness

Primary prevention is achieved by methods aimed at reducing the level of serical bilirubin. The type of resource to be used (phototherapy, immunoglobulins e.v., exanguinotransfusion)   is decided on the basis of the level of bilirubinemia, the age of the child and the pathology possibly associated with it.

(b) Ototoxicy from  drugs

Taking ototoxic drugs is an  audiological risk factor for  deafness. Among the substances     of which ototoxicy has been established are aminoglycosis  antibiotics  (gentamicin, streptomycin,  kanamicin),salicylates, quinine, chemotherapy (cisplatin), diuretics of the loop as well as certain substances such as alcohol and carbon monoxide.

Ototoxicy can vary appreciably not only depending on the dosage, route of administration and the rate (duration and number of daily administrations) of treatment, but also for individual sensitity.

Taking into account the above it is useful to emphasize that, in case of absolute need for treatment with ototoxic drugs, continuous monitoring of the auditory  function is necessary to identify initial damage, before they become disabling. On the other hand, sensory damage   can occur some time after causal drug treatment, so that only with appropriate follow-up can such cases be identified.

(c) Deafness from infectious diseases

Many infectious diseases causing deafness can be prevented with an intelligent vaccination program, predicting that the main causes of congenital perceptual deafness on an infectious basis are rubella, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis. While the most  frequent causes of  deafness  are secondary to mumps (cause of generally monolateral deafness) and bacterial meningitis.

In the context of congenital infections transmitted in utero, specific serological investigations play a

diagnostic confirmation of clinical suspicion, but as far as rubella is concerned, these tests are significant in the pre-conceptional period in order to identify unprotected women to be vaccinated.

In addition to vaccination for rubella, vaccinations are also  recommended for mumps,

measles and pathogens of bacterial meningitis, in particular for haemophilus and  pneumococcal.

Carrying out vaccinations against these pathogens can  therefore prevent most of the acquired deafness.

SECONDARY PREVENTION:

Secondary prevention avoids aggravation of hearing impairment especially in middle otitis and meningitis  deafness.

For medium otitis, the hygiene  and health of the rhinopharynx is a fundamental condition. Important  is the use of cortisone in bacterial meningitis (especially those from Hemophilus)to reduce   the consequences of endococlear  ossification  that must be immediately identified before it affects the results of a possible cochlear implant.

TERTIARY PREVENTION:

Tertiary prevention aims to prevent deafness from becoming a  cause  of disability and communication disabilities, especially chronic ones such as the lack of learning verbal language, realizing the condition of deafmutism.

The means to prevent deafness from  complicateing are early diagnosis and treatment that can only be real if preceded by early identification carried out through mass screening in congenital deafness and with immediate diagnosis in those acquired, especially if from meningitis.

The most important   audiological screening in    paediatric age is neonatal    screening because it allowsto identify early severely  disabling deafness at an optimal age for rehabilitation treatment.

Neonatal screening may be limited to those at audiological risk, but today it  is  preferable to test the entire population of newborns.

AUDIOLOGICAL RISK FACTORS

• Familiarity  with  congenital  neurosensory deafness;

• Congenital infections (Cytomegalovirus,toxoplasmosis, rubella, herpes  etc);

• Craniofacial malformations;

• Birth weight less than 1500 g;

• Jaundice with bilirubinemia of at least 20 mg/dl or which required exanguinotransfusion;

• Ototoxic drugs;

• Bacterial meningitis;

• Mechanical ventilation with a duration of more than 4  days;

• Apgar score  0-4 in the  1st  minute and 0-6 in the 5th minute;

• Syndromes/chromosomopathies  associated with auditory impairment;

Before activating any screening  activity it is necessary to keep in mind some concepts that prevent a “deistage” from revealinging,costly and harmful.

It is important to stress that screening is not a diagnostic procedure  since it aims toindicate whether or  not an individual is normal, while the diagnostic survey allows a quantitative and qualitative evaluation of anyhearing impairment.

Before implementing a screening programme,  it is essential to bear in mind that it is not enough to have a valid screening test, but that we must have an effective organization and a link with a diagnostic center of pediatric audiology since’the objective is not only the identification, but the diagnosis and early treatment of  deafness’.

Neonatal screening may be limited to those at audiological risk (2-4%bilateral significant hearing loss), but, in view ofthe fact that 30-40 % of subjects with significant hearing loss do not have risk factors, it is preferable to test the entire infant population, according to the following recommendations:

Otoemissions  (OAE) and/or acoustic evoked potentials of the automatic trunk (AABR) whose positivity must be confirmed by conventional acoustic evoked potentials with the determination of the auditory threshold carried out at the center itself or at a paediatric audiology service.

In the event that the conditions for effective neonatal screening are not met by the methods indicated, an information booklet may be used to be delivered to   new mothers  to ensure that they watch over the hearingof the child.

Early detection of  deafness does not end with neonatal screening as preverbal deafness can arise even in later times; audiological surveillance can be carried out through the same information booklet delivered to all new mothers on discharge from birth centres, public and/or private.

Neonatal audiological screening, because it is effective, must affect at least 95% ofthe population surveyed with a REFER(positive tests  for  deafness)not exceeding4% and must be able to identify a person with  disabling deafness  for every thousand births.

Diagnosis

AUDIOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS

The audiological  diagnosis is clinical-instrumental and involves several moments of investigation, grouped into two batteries: one for transmissive  deafness and the other for perceptual deafness, emphasizing that the collection of anamnestic data should not be conducted only to identify the etiopathogenesis of auditory impairment, but above all to highlight the symptomatic characteristics of the various types of hearing loss in terms of  communication skills.

In the presence of transmissive deafness, it will be possible to limit ourselves to the audio/impedenzometric study which, in most cases,  is  sufficient to propose the appropriate therapeutic treatment.

For perceptual deafness,  on the other hand, it is necessary  to know:

• the level of hearing impairment;

• the effects of the deficit on disability  and disability;

• the place of injury both in terms of functional and morphological topodiagnosis,

• the etiopathogenesis of deafness,

• the presence of associated pathologies.

All information should be collected in a single diagnostic document so as  not to disperse useful information for preventive, therapeutic and rehabilitation purposes.

THE STATE OF THE DEFICIT

Hearing impairment must be precisely defined for all frequencies normally evaluated in tonal audiometry. In this regard, it should be emphasized that all trusted objective tests(ECoGh, ABR) do not allow the reconstruction of a tonal audiogram and do not allow to identify auditory thresholds greater than 100 dB HL, therefore these are confirmation tests and not the main evaluation.

The audiometry tests to be used will vary according to the age of the patient, distinguishing:

• B.O.A (Behavioral Observation Audiometry)

• V.R.A. (Visual Reinforced Audiometry)

• C.O.R. (Conditionated Orientation Audiometry)

• PLAY AUDIOMETRY;

and the clinician will implement his own strategy to  improve awareness and   specificity  (repetition of the test by different personnel with a blind procedure, training of a team of expert examiners, etc.).

It should be remembered that deafness is distinguished in: mild hearing loss (20-40 dB), medium (40-70 dB), severe (70-90 dB), deep (90-120 dB), cophosis if total bilateral deafness,   anacusia  se monolateral.

DISABLING EFFECTS OF THE DEFICIT

All deafness over  70 dB does not allow you to hear the voice of conversation and therefore cause an obvious disabling effect with social repercussions.

Mild or medium deafness, on the other hand, is not always the cause of disability or disability that must be investigated both by evaluating the communicative behavior of the patient (in the   small child can be used the Video Analysis of Communicative Behavior) and the judgment produced by parents and teachers, pre-vilifying  the questionnaires that allow the quantification of the judgment itself.

The importance of this investigation arises from  the fact that in some cases of mild or medium perceptual deafness, with a cochlear location, recruitment compensates for hearing impairment for superliminal   stimuli such as the voice of conversation and for these subjects no prosthetic/rehabilitative treatment is advisable, other than a periodic follow-up. The principle described above  is valid especially in the first months of life  sincethe communicative situations in which the infant is found are rarely multiple listening where mild or medium hearing loss acquires a disabling value.

PLACE OF INJURY

Audiological topodiagnosis  is achieved by impedenzometry,  otoemissions and the study of evoked potentials.

The morphological diagnosis, in turn, mainly concerns the dysmorphisms of the oxycularchain, the innerear and the acoustic nerve, using CT when the object of investigation is bone tissue and MRI when instead you want to study soft tissues.

ETIOPATHOGENESIS OF DEAFNESS

In the first diagnosis the clinician can  be faced with two consequences:  deafness from known causes and unknown causes. In all deafness  from unknown causes it is  useful  to carry out the search for a possible infection with Cytomegalovirus or a genetic transmission of the deficit.

CMV INFECTION

  Cytomegalovirus deafness is   today the most frequent cause of hearing impairment for congenital infection even if it causes often evolutionary hearing loss even after the first months of life.

GENETIC DEAFNESS

More than 60% of deafness  is of genetic origin, of which 30% are part of a syndromeic condition (i.e. they are associated with other alterations), mendelian hereditaryity, such as:  Alportsyndrome, Norie syndrome, Usher syndrome,  Pendred syndrome,  Waardenburg syndrome,etc.

70% are non-syndrome forms with Mendelian or mitochondrial hereditaryity divided as follows:

Recessive (about 80% of cases)

Dominant (about 18% of cases)

X-linked  (about 1% of cases)

Mitochondrial (about 1% of cases).

Each mode of transmission  corresponds to a specific genetic risk of recurrence  of deafness.

It is the task  and responsibility  of the geneticist to frame the patient after the diagnosis of deafness by identifying or excluding associated pathologies (syndrome forms). The definition of genetic etiology  of deafness  should not only be pursued for diagnostic completeness,  but also becausecertain morbid conditions maybe susceptible to therapy, or may limit therapeutic outcomes.

In practical terms, there are three main situations:

1. Subject with hearing loss within an obvious polymalformativeframework:

it will perform for the first time a dismorfological evaluation in an outpatient context, to adequately set the most suitable procedure for   the general diagnostic framework, and then, depending on the final diagnosis placed,  it will be reevaluated for the monitoring of possible complications through Day-Hospital and /or admissions at the Reference Center.

It will perform genetic (cytogenetic and/or molecular) tests specific to each pathology.

2. Subject with malformative syndrome and potential risk of hearing loss as a known complication of the sindromic picture:

an accurate assessment of the auditory function will be set up and, if it is abnormal, appropriately addressed for treatment.

3. Subject with isolated deafness:

it will be subjected to the genetic test of connessin  26 and possibly connessin  30 and mitochondrial, after having gathered consent in the context of a genetic consultation explaining the characteristics and limits of the genetic test.

At the end of the  genetic consultation, the risk of transmission of deafness in the family will be formulated on a case-by-case  basis and a written report containing the results of molecular investigations will be delivered.

Geneticists therefore contribute to the identification of etiology and to the definition of the genetic risk of patients suffering from genetic hearing loss and their families, facilitating the realization of an integrated path with other specialists.

THERAPY

MEDICAL THERAPY

Medical therapy mainly concerns the treatment of otitis divided into OME (Otitis Media Effusiva), OMA (Acute Otitis Media), WTO (Chronic Otitis Media).

SURGICAL THERAPY

Chain dysmorphism:

The dimorphisms of the chain provide for reconstructive surgical treatment whose effectiveness must be carefully evaluated by the operator sinceacoustic  prosthesis allows to achieve immediate and effective functional results.

Chronic otitis mucous serum(Glue-ear):

Surgical treatment with transtimpanic drainage is    indicated in cases of glue  ear characterized by hearing loss, typical otoscopic signs and pervia tuba.

Purulent chronic otitis (with tympanic perforation):

The surgical treatment includes three options: miringoplasty, open tympanoplasty, closed tympanoplasty, as the case may be, but favoring conservative treatments when the type and extent of the pathology does not require demolition interventions to definitively resolve the infection.

REHABILITATION PROSTHETIC TREATMENT

The strategy to be followed concerns above all  perceptual deafness and transmissives that cannot be treated with medical or surgical therapy. There are two decisive moments, that is,  prosthesis and speech therapy rehabilitation that  will be guaranteed by a team of specialists coordinated by the manager of the structure that takes care of the patient and of which the family is an  active part.

PROSTHESIS

Leaving aside the transmissive hearing loss for which it may be necessary to use prostheses by bone, prosthesis    isinitially, alwaysacoustic, binaural and associated, when necessary, with the use of a vibrator.

Prosthetic prescribing follows the rules laid down in current national and regional legislation and must be carried out immediately after diagnosis. The first times of use of the prosthesis will also be used by the clinician as an ex iuvantibus  test to confirm the diagnosis.

From a general point of view, the rule applies  that in shallow hearing loss it is appropriate to prescribe digital prostheses to  ensure a good reproduction  quality. In case of  deep deafness,  on the other hand, the main interest concerns the amount  of amplification that is not always enough with digital prostheses to compensate for important hearing   losses. In this case, the clinician  will consider  programmable prostheses that will allow to achieve the necessary levels of amplification.

Finally, it should not be forgotten that    the prosthetic choice depends on the rehabilitation methods that the patient will followsince  the oralistic  methods “dependent expression” require less amplifications than those that accompany the rehabilitation methods of an acupedic type.

As soon as the small patient enters multiple listening situations (kindergarten, kindergarten…) it is necessary to associate the use of an FM system, also binaural, with the acoustic prosthesis.

The deep deaf will subsequently be candidates for cochlear implant to be performed after twelve months of life when there is no risk of ossification      as can happen in postmeningitic deafness. In this case the cochlear implant  is indicated  even before twelve months of life.

The indication to the cochlear implant will have to be confirmed if the hearing aids and vibrators do not allow sufficient rehabilitation results to be achieved. The application of the cochlear implant is generally monoaural, except in cases of recent bacterial meningitis for which the risks of fibrosis and/or ossification require intervention for both ears and in the deaf-blind where hearing  orientation makes it possible to reduce the mobilityhandicap.

Rehabilitation

Speech therapy rehabilitation will be  mainly  oral, limiting  itself to auditory aspects in mild and medium deafness and also dealing with linguistic cognitive ones in the most important hearing   deficits.

In any case, sign language teaching will be guaranteed in suitable places if the child’s parents prefer this type of treatment or where the prosthetic-oralchoice does not allow sufficient communication results to be achieved.

LIMITATION OF BENEFITS AND BENEFITS

The competent doctor and/or prescriber will also  have to provide the necessary documentation to obtain the provisions to which the patient is entitled. The  most  important are the communication and attendance allowance and the choice between the two will have to be made by the parent according to the provisions of the legislation in force. It should be remembered  that  you can benefit from the communication allowance after the first year of life, but  with the attendance allowance    it is possible to cover the expenses for this first rehabilitation moment, then allowing the patient’s parents to transform the allowance of frequency itself into communication if considered  more  favorable.

In addition to the allowance, it is   necessary to make a declaration of the state of disability and to inform parents about the facilities provided for the stamp duty and purchase of the car as wellas on local facilities and that concern above alltransport.

ASSIGNMENT OF SUPPORT TEACHER

At the beginning of each calendar year  it is necessary that the team that follows the patient fill in the request of the possible support teacher to be supported by the child. The report  will be attached to the functional communication diagnosis in which the hours at which the support teacher is to be present during the school week will be suggested, but bearing in mind that the final decision on the allocation of resources rests with the school director.

ASSIGNMENT OF THE HOME ASSISTANT

The Provincial Department of Care, either directly or through  the municipalities, generally provide for the possibility of assigning   a communication assistant whose activities take place at the patient’s home. These are staff prepared ad hoc and whose activities  will have to be organized by the audiological center to which the child refers.

CONTROLS

Controls vary depending on  the type of hearing loss.

For all surgically treated ear pathologies, the healing of the disease and the solution or stabilization of impairment at least two years later must be verified.

Diseases that have benefited from medical therapy alone should be evaluated in accordance with the experience of the curant.

 For perceptual  deafness, the follow-up  will have to  be more articulated involving impairment, prosthetic gain,  degree of disability  and degree of disability.

Monitoring impairment will assess the stability  of  hearing loss and thus the continuous effectiveness of the prescribed prosthetic devices.

Prosthetic control will refer both to functional gain (tonal and verbal) and to the proper functioning of the instruments in use.

The degree of family and    school disabilities will inform about the difficulties encountered by the patient both in a domestic and social environment and will lead to consideration of the opportunity for supplementary rehabilitation interventions such as the assignment of a home assistant or support  teacher.

The periodicality  in which  the  follow-up of the perceptual deaf   is advisable is six-monthly and on that occasion it is advisable to formalize subsequent rehabilitation plans.

L'articolo DEAFNESS IN CHILDHOOD proviene da Otorino Matera.

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L'articolo Stuttering proviene da Otorino Matera.

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BETALATTAMINE:These are the antibiotics most used in clinical practice for less toxicity and for the great variability of the spectrum of action. They are distinguished into:Peniciilline; Mr Penemi; Carbapenemi;Betalactamasi inhibitors (or Clavami); Monobactami.All these molecules have a bactericidal action determined by inhibition of the synthesis of peptidoglyclian of the bacterial wall.

MACROLIDES:They represent a group of antibiotics derived initially by extraction from different Streptomices (Erythromycin, Oleandomicin, Spiramycin, Iosamycin, etc.), to which have been added the semisyntetic forms (Fluritromycin, Claritromycin, Roxitromycin, Dirythromycin, Rokitamicin, Myocamycin). They have a predominantly bacteriostatic action and have a cellular affinity and a very high diffusion in tissues that allow a large volume of distribution with high and persistent tissue concentrations.

LINCOSAMIDS:They are similar to macrolides for the mechanism of action but differ in their different chemical structure and antibacterial spectrum specific to Neisseria, Legionella and Chlamydia but which includes Gram+ Cocchi, Gram+ and Gram- anaerobes and some Gram+ bacilli. Currently the most active molecule is Clindamycin.

AMINOGLYCOSIDES:They are extracted from a Streptomyces (Streptomycin, Kanamicin, Tobramicin, etc.), from a Macrospore (Gentamicin, Sisomicin, etc.) and from semisynthesis (Amikacin, Netilmycin, etc.). Despite a narrow field of therapeutic use and a high level of nephr and ototoxicy, they are widely used mainly in hospitals.

GLICOPEPTIDI:Vancomycin and Teicoplamine are used almost exclusively for serious nosocomial infections by Gram+ Cocchi such as Staphylococchi, Pneumococchi, Enterococchi and Gram+ anaerobics. They have a slow bactericidal action that occurs only on bacteria in active multiplication, and a narrow spectrum of action. The most frequent use is nosocomial sepsis sometimes in combination with aminoglucosides when a multi-resistant staphylococcus infection is suspected or in cases allergic to betalactamines.

FLUORQUINONICs:They represent the second generation of Quinolonics that began in 1962 with the synthesis of nalidixic acid to which a fluorine atom has been added in position C6 and an unre replaced piperazine nucleus or methyl-replaced in position C7. The new quinolones are characterized by high broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and pharmacokinetics that allows diffusion in all locations of the infectious process, and therefore systemic use both orally and injecting. Piperazine fluorquinolones have a rapid bactericidal action by inhibiting bacterial DNA replication.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE:The increasingly large and sometimes incongruous consumption of antibiotics has caused the appearance of a phenomenon initially not foreseen but currently widely documented: the selection of strains of antibiotic-resistant germs that has led to the need to find new molecules. The last congress of the Italian Society of Microbiology (SIM) highlighted, for example, that the pneumonia bacterium (Staphylococcus Pneumoniae) resists penicillins in 16% while pneumococcus resistant to macrolide antibiotics have reached 33%. The main causes of antibiotic resistance are attributable:1. To the doctor:Often prescriptions of antibiotics useless for the patient’s pathology (for example: antibiotic in a viral pathology “to avoid a bacterial overlap”); Sometimes the duration of the prescribed therapy is not adequate for the complete eradication of the infectious process; Sometimes an antibiotic is prescribed only under “pressure” from the patient but without real need.2. To the Patient:Often the patient stops antibiotic therapy as soon as he feels better (in the meantime germs multiply again developing pharmacoresistance); Practice of self-prescribing. The new frontier of antibiotic therapy, even in the progress of pharmacological research of new and more effective molecules, must have as its primary purpose a more rational use of the drugs currently known, to obtain full control of the infectious pathology and an indefensible containment of health expenditure.

L'articolo Antibiotic therapy in Otolaryngory proviene da Otorino Matera.

L'articolo Neonatal audiological screening with otoemissions proviene da Otorino Matera.